medlitГигиена и санитарияHygiene and Sanitation0016-99002412-0650Federal Scientific Center of Hygiene named after F.F. Erisman10.47470/0016-9900-2025-104-12-1663-1669vattcqmedlit-5339Research ArticleГИГИЕНА ОКРУЖАЮЩЕЙ СРЕДЫENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENEМеждународные и отечественные подходы к оценке почв кладбищ различных природно-климатических зон (обзор литературы)International and domestic approaches to the assessment of cemetery soils in various natural-climatic zones (literature review)https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2275-9010УшаковаОльга ВладимировнаUshakovaOlga V.

Канд. мед. наук, вед. науч. сотр. отд. гигиены ФГБУ «ЦСП» ФМБА России, 119121, Москва, Россия

e-mail: Oushakova@cspfmba.ru

PhD (Medicine), leading researcher, Hygiene department, Centre for Strategic Planning of the Federal medical and biological agency, Moscow, 119435, Russian Federation

e-mail: Oushakova@cspfmba.ru 

Oushakova@cspfmba.ruhttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-2067-8014РахманинЮрий АнатольевичRakhmaninYuri A.

Доктор мед. наук, профессор, академик РАН, гл. науч. сотр. ФГБУ «ЦСП» ФМБА России, 119121, Москва, Россия

e-mail: YuRakhmanin@cspmz.ru

DSc (Medicine), chief researcher, Centre for Strategic Planning of the Federal medical and biological agency, Moscow, 119435, Russian Federation

e-mail: YuRakhmanin@cspmz.ru

YuRakhmanin@cspmz.ruhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-5765-0192ЕвсееваИрина СергеевнаEvseevaIrina S.

Канд. мед. наук, ст. науч. сотр. отд. гигиены ФГБУ «ЦСП» ФМБА России, 119121, Москва, Россия

e-mail: Ievseeva@cspfmba.ru

(PhD (Medicine), senior researcher, Hygiene department, Centre for Strategic Planning of the Federal medical and biological agency, Moscow, 119435, Russian Federation

e-mail: Ievseeva@cspfmba.ru

Ievseeva@cspfmba.ruhttps://orcid.org/0009-0002-2155-9754ИбрагимоваСаида ШахрамазановнаIbragimovaSaida Sh.

Специалист отд. гигиены ФГБУ «ЦСП» ФМБА России, 119121, Москва, Россия

e-mail: SIbragimova@cspfmba.ru

Specialist, Hygiene department, Centre for Strategic Planning of the Federal medical and biological agency Moscow, 119435, Russian Federation

e-mail: SIbragimova@cspfmba.ru

SIbragimova@cspfmba.ruФГБУ «Центр стратегического планирования и управления медико-биологическими рисками здоровью» Федерального медико-биологического агентстваРоссияCenter for Strategic Planning of the Federal medical and biological agencyRussian FederationФГБУ «Центр стратегического планирования и управления медико-биологическими рисками здоровью» Федерального медико-биологического агентства; ФБУН «Федеральный научный центр гигиены имени Ф.Ф. Эрисмана» Федеральной службы по надзору в сфере защиты прав потребителей и благополучия человекаРоссияCenter for Strategic Planning of the Federal medical and biological agency; Federal Scientific Center of Hygiene named after F.F. ErismanRussian Federation2025190120261041216631669Copyright © Ушакова О.В., Рахманин Ю.А., Евсеева И.С., Ибрагимова С.Ш., 20262026Ушакова О.В., Рахманин Ю.А., Евсеева И.С., Ибрагимова С.Ш.Ushakova O.V., Rakhmanin Y.A., Evseeva I.S., Ibragimova S.S.Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.https://www.rjhas.ru/jour/article/view/5339

Смерть неотделима от функционирования биосферы и демонстрирует её неотъемлемую связь с присутствием человечества на Земле. По данным на конец 2024 г., при общей численности населения планеты 8,156 млрд человек среднесуточное число смертей составляло 170 463 (7103 смерти в час). Анализ урбанизированных территорий, на которых сконцентрировано 4,42 млрд человек, выявил прямую корреляцию между развитием городов и организацией мест захоронения. Исторические документы подтверждают, что городские агломерации, существовавшие тысячелетиями, традиционно выполняли функцию площадок для погребения. В настоящее время территории бывших захоронений используются в основном как зоны постоянного погребального назначения либо как преобразованные в парковые зоны или застроенные участки с озеленёнными территориями.

Исследование почвенного покрова указанных выше территорий выявило специфические характеристики, обусловленные первоначальным назначением и последующими трансформациями землепользования. Все почвы мест захоронения классифицируются как некросоли и характеризуются следующими признаками: турбация почвенного профиля, обогащение более глубоких горизонтов почвы фосфором и углеродом, глубокое перемешивание почвы и наличие различных артефактов, останки захоронений. В современной классификации почв отсутствует место для тех почв, которые после захоронений используются в пределах застроенных территорий, их можно охарактеризовать только как «техногенные» или «другие почвы» без указания бывших захоронений.

В статье представлен обзор зарубежной и российской литературы, посвящённой исследованиям почв кладбищ и классификации их по степени воздействия на окружающую среду и здоровье населения. Исследованию не подлежали почвы, используемые для мест захоронения останков после сжигания тел умерших в крематории или для мест именных родовых захоронений в склепах.

Участие авторов

Участие авторов: Ушакова О.В. – концепция и дизайн исследования, написание текста, редактирование; Рахманин Ю.А. – концепция исследования, редактирование; Евсеева И.С. – концепция и дизайн исследования, сбор материала и обработка данных, написание текста, редактирование; Ибрагимова С.Ш. – написание текста, редактирование. Все соавторы – утверждение окончательного варианта статьи, ответственность за целостность всех её частей.

Конфликт интересов

Конфликт интересов. Авторы декларируют отсутствие явных и потенциальных конфликтов интересов в связи с публикацией данной статьи.

Финансирование

Финансирование. Исследование выполнено в рамках Государственного задания.

Поступила

Поступила: 13.11.2025 / Принята к печати: 02.12.2025 / Опубликована: 15.01.2026

Death is inseparable from the functioning of the biosphere and demonstrates its inherent connection to the presence of humanity on Earth. According to data from the end of 2024, with a total global population of 8.156 billion people, the average daily number of recorded deaths is 170,463, which amounts to 7,103 deaths per hour. An analysis of urbanized areas, which are home to 4.42 billion people, revealed a direct correlation between urban development and the management of burial sites. A historical retrospective shows that urban agglomerations, which have existed for millennia, have traditionally served as sites for interment. Currently, the territories of former burial grounds are used mainly as permanent burial zones, converted into park areas or built-up areas with green spaces. A study of the soil cover in the aforementioned territories revealed specific characteristics due to their original purpose and subsequent land-use transformations. All soils at burial sites are classified as necrosols and are characterized by the following features: turbation of the soil profile, enrichment of deeper soil horizons with phosphorus and carbon, deep mixing of the soil, and the presence of various artifacts and burial remains. In modern soil classification, there is no place for those soils that, after being used for burials, are utilized within built-up areas; they can only be characterized as “technogenic” or “other soils” without indicating the presence of former graves.

This article provides a review of foreign and Russian literature devoted to the study of cemetery soils, aiming to classify them according to their degree of impact on the environment and public health. The study did not include soils used for burial sites after the cremation of the bodies of the deceased in a crematorium or for burial sites in family vaults.

Contribution

Contribution: Ushakova O.V. – research concept and design, writing, editing; Rakhmanin Yu.A. – research concept, editing; Evseeva I.S. – research concept and design, collection of material and data processing, writing, editing; Ibragimova S.Sh. – writing, editing. All authors are responsible for the integrity of all parts of the manuscript and approval of the manuscript final version.

Conflict of interest

Conflict of interest. The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Funding

Funding. The study was carried out as part of the State assignment.

Received

Received: November 13, 2025 / Accepted: December 2, 2025 / Published: January 15, 2026

некрозёмыклассификациятипы почвурбанозёмкладбищазахоронениягородское землепользованиенекросолизащита мест захороненияnecrozemsclassificationsoil typesUrbanozemcemeteriesburialsurban land useNecrosolsburial site conservationReferencesWorld Population Prospects 2022. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. UN DESA/POP/2022/DC/NO. 9. New York; 2022.World Population Prospects 2022. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. UN DESA/POP/2022/DC/NO. 9. New York; 2022.Kaneda T., Greenbaum C., Haub C. World Population Data Sheet. Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau; 2022. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Population Prospects: The 2022 Revision. New York: United Nations; 2022.Kaneda T., Greenbaum C., Haub C. World Population Data Sheet. Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau; 2022. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Population Prospects: The 2022 Revision. New York: United Nations; 2022.Uslu A., Baris E., Erdogan E. Ecological concerns over cemeteries. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 2009; 4(13): 1505–11.Uslu A., Baris E., Erdogan E. Ecological concerns over cemeteries. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 2009; 4(13): 1505–11.Zelinsky W. Gathering places for America’s dead: How many, where, and why? Prof. Geogr. 1994; 46(1): 29–38.Zelinsky W. Gathering places for America’s dead: How many, where, and why? Prof. Geogr. 1994; 46(1): 29–38.Stevens J. Graveyards of the Contiguous USA. Joshua Stevens; 2018. Available at: https://www.joshuastevens.net/blog/graveyards-of-the-contiguous-usa/Stevens J. Graveyards of the Contiguous USA. Joshua Stevens; 2018. Available at: https://www.joshuastevens.net/blog/graveyards-of-the-contiguous-usa/Cemeteries in the city plan. Information Report No. 16. July 1950. PAS Report 16; 1950. Available at: https://www.planning.org/pas/reports/report16.htmCemeteries in the city plan. Information Report No. 16. July 1950. PAS Report 16; 1950. Available at: https://www.planning.org/pas/reports/report16.htmFriedhöfe im Wandel der Zeit. Deutscher Städte- und Gemeindebund Dokumentation No. 164; 2021. Available at: https://dstgb.de/publikationen/dokumentationen/nr-164-zukunft-kommunaler-friedhoefe/nr.-164-zukunft-kommunaler-friedhoefe.pdf?cid=l3sFriedhöfe im Wandel der Zeit. Deutscher Städte- und Gemeindebund Dokumentation No. 164; 2021. Available at: https://dstgb.de/publikationen/dokumentationen/nr-164-zukunft-kommunaler-friedhoefe/nr.-164-zukunft-kommunaler-friedhoefe.pdf?cid=l3sFlächennutzung. Bodenfläche insgesamt nach Nutzungsarten in Deutschland. Statistisches Bundesamt (Destatis); 2023. Available at: https://destatis.de/DE/Themen/Branchen-Unternehmen/Landwirtschaft-Forstwirtschaft-Fischerei/Flaechennutzung/Tabellen/bodenflaeche-insgesamt.htmlFlächennutzung. Bodenfläche insgesamt nach Nutzungsarten in Deutschland. Statistisches Bundesamt (Destatis); 2023. Available at: https://destatis.de/DE/Themen/Branchen-Unternehmen/Landwirtschaft-Forstwirtschaft-Fischerei/Flaechennutzung/Tabellen/bodenflaeche-insgesamt.htmlLand use; all categories, municipalities. Statistics Netherlands; 2017. Available at: https://cbs.nl/en-gb/figures/detail/70262ENGLand use; all categories, municipalities. Statistics Netherlands; 2017. Available at: https://cbs.nl/en-gb/figures/detail/70262ENGService of the Republic of Poland. Digitization of cemeteries. Results of a survey conducted in municipalities XI-XII 2020; 2023. Available at: https://gov.pl/web/cyfryzacjamiejscpamieci/sytuacja-polskich-cmentarzy--wyniki-ankietyService of the Republic of Poland. Digitization of cemeteries. Results of a survey conducted in municipalities XI-XII 2020; 2023. Available at: https://gov.pl/web/cyfryzacjamiejscpamieci/sytuacja-polskich-cmentarzy--wyniki-ankietyDevelopments and Forecasts on Continuing Urbanisation. Urbanisation worldwide. European Commission; 2020. Available at: https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/foresight/topic/continuing-urbanisation/developments-and-forecasts-on-continuing-urbanisation_enDevelopments and Forecasts on Continuing Urbanisation. Urbanisation worldwide. European Commission; 2020. Available at: https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/foresight/topic/continuing-urbanisation/developments-and-forecasts-on-continuing-urbanisation_enScalenghe R., Pantani O.L. Connecting existing cemeteries saving good soils (for livings). Sustainability. 2019; 12(1): 93.Scalenghe R., Pantani O.L. Connecting existing cemeteries saving good soils (for livings). Sustainability. 2019; 12(1): 93.National Funeral Directors Association. Statistics. NFDA; 2022. Available at: https://nfda.org/news/statisticsNational Funeral Directors Association. Statistics. NFDA; 2022. Available at: https://nfda.org/news/statisticsNFDA Cremation & Burial Report. National Funeral Directors Association. Brookfield, WI; 2022.NFDA Cremation & Burial Report. National Funeral Directors Association. Brookfield, WI; 2022.Długozima A., Rej M. Contemporary trends in European cemeteries design. Space Form. 2014; 21: 403–16.Długozima A., Rej M. Contemporary trends in European cemeteries design. Space Form. 2014; 21: 403–16.Lauwers M. The birth of the cemetery: sacred places and land of the dead in the medieval West. Volume 1. Campinas: EdUnicamp; 2015.Lauwers M. The birth of the cemetery: sacred places and land of the dead in the medieval West. Volume 1. Campinas: EdUnicamp; 2015.Zhang M., Ma L., Li W., Chen B., Jia J. Genetic characteristics and taxonomic classification of Fimic Anthrosols in China. Geoderma. 2003; 115(1–2): 31–44.Zhang M., Ma L., Li W., Chen B., Jia J. Genetic characteristics and taxonomic classification of Fimic Anthrosols in China. Geoderma. 2003; 115(1–2): 31–44.Neckel A., Costa C., Mario D.N., Sabadin C.E.S., Bodah E.T. Environmental damage and public health threat caused by cemeteries: A proposal of ideal cemeteries for the growing urban sprawl. Urbe. Rev. Bras. Gest. Urbana. 2022; 14: e20210135.Neckel A., Costa C., Mario D.N., Sabadin C.E.S., Bodah E.T. Environmental damage and public health threat caused by cemeteries: A proposal of ideal cemeteries for the growing urban sprawl. Urbe. Rev. Bras. Gest. Urbana. 2022; 14: e20210135.Grabalov P., Nordh H. The future of urban cemeteries as public spaces: Insights from Oslo and Copenhagen. Plan. Theory Pract. 2022; 23(1): 81–98.Grabalov P., Nordh H. The future of urban cemeteries as public spaces: Insights from Oslo and Copenhagen. Plan. Theory Pract. 2022; 23(1): 81–98.Van den Breemer R. Governing cemeteries: state responses to the new diversity in the Netherlands, Norway and France. Ser. Diss. Fac. Theol. Univ. Oslo Acta Theol. 2019; 75: 329.Van den Breemer R. Governing cemeteries: state responses to the new diversity in the Netherlands, Norway and France. Ser. Diss. Fac. Theol. Univ. Oslo Acta Theol. 2019; 75: 329.Explore the fourteen Cemeteries of Paris. French Moments; 2023. Available at: https://frenchmoments.eu/cemeteries-of-paris/Explore the fourteen Cemeteries of Paris. French Moments; 2023. Available at: https://frenchmoments.eu/cemeteries-of-paris/Van Haaren F.W.J. Churchyards as sources for water pollution. Moorman’s Periodieke Pers. 1951; 35(16): 167–72.Van Haaren F.W.J. Churchyards as sources for water pollution. Moorman’s Periodieke Pers. 1951; 35(16): 167–72.Forbes G.B. Human Body Composition; Growth, Aging, Nutrition, and Activity. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1987.Forbes G.B. Human Body Composition; Growth, Aging, Nutrition, and Activity. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1987.Mann J., Truswell A.S. Essentials of Human Nutrition. New York: Oxford University Press; 2002.Mann J., Truswell A.S. Essentials of Human Nutrition. New York: Oxford University Press; 2002.Lins E.A.M., Lins A.S.B.M. Evaluation of environmental impacts generated by cemetery in pandemic period: Case study. Int. J. Adv. Sci. Res. 2020; 5(3): 16–20.Lins E.A.M., Lins A.S.B.M. Evaluation of environmental impacts generated by cemetery in pandemic period: Case study. Int. J. Adv. Sci. Res. 2020; 5(3): 16–20.Cao S., Zhao X., Wang L., Wang B., Chen Y., Duan X. Body Weight, Highlights of the Chinese Exposure Factors Handbook (Adults). Academic Press; 2015: 53–4.Cao S., Zhao X., Wang L., Wang B., Chen Y., Duan X. Body Weight, Highlights of the Chinese Exposure Factors Handbook (Adults). Academic Press; 2015: 53–4.Fogli G. Techniques of decomposition of Bodies Adopted in Cemeteries and Their Relations with the Environment; 2004.Fogli G. Techniques of decomposition of Bodies Adopted in Cemeteries and Their Relations with the Environment; 2004.Helmenstine A.M. Elemental Composition of the Human Body by Mass; 2019.Helmenstine A.M. Elemental Composition of the Human Body by Mass; 2019.Lins E., Lins M., Lins C. Negative environmental impacts generated by cemetery: Case study. Int. J. Adv. Sci. Res. 2019; 4: 16–9.Lins E., Lins M., Lins C. Negative environmental impacts generated by cemetery: Case study. Int. J. Adv. Sci. Res. 2019; 4: 16–9.Cauduro F., Müller C.R., da Silva Ricardo G. Problem of Brazilian cemeteries and environment-review of studies. Holos Environment. 2019; 19(4): 515–27. https://doi.org/10.14295/holos.v19i4.12341Cauduro F., Müller C.R., da Silva Ricardo G. Problem of Brazilian cemeteries and environment-review of studies. Holos Environment. 2019; 19(4): 515–27. https://doi.org/10.14295/holos.v19i4.12341Barbieri R., Texier G., Keller C., Drancourt M. Soil salinity and aridity specify plague foci in the United States of America. Sci. Rep. 2020; 10(1): 6186. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-63211-4Barbieri R., Texier G., Keller C., Drancourt M. Soil salinity and aridity specify plague foci in the United States of America. Sci. Rep. 2020; 10(1): 6186. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-63211-4Spyrou M.A., Musralina L., Gnecchi Ruscone G.A., Kocher A., Borbone P.G., Khartanovich V.I., et al. The source of the Black Death in fourteenth-century central Eurasia. Nature. 2022; 606(7915): 718–24. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04800-3Spyrou M.A., Musralina L., Gnecchi Ruscone G.A., Kocher A., Borbone P.G., Khartanovich V.I., et al. The source of the Black Death in fourteenth-century central Eurasia. Nature. 2022; 606(7915): 718–24. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04800-3Dippenaar M.A., Olivier J. Section A. Introduction. In: Dippenaar M.A., Olivier J., Lorentz S., Ubomba-Jaswa E., Abia A.L.K., Diamond R.E., eds. Environmental Risk Assessment, Monitoring and Management of Cemeteries. Report to the Water Research Commission. WRC Report No. 2449/1/18; 2018: 1–8.Dippenaar M.A., Olivier J. Section A. Introduction. In: Dippenaar M.A., Olivier J., Lorentz S., Ubomba-Jaswa E., Abia A.L.K., Diamond R.E., eds. Environmental Risk Assessment, Monitoring and Management of Cemeteries. Report to the Water Research Commission. WRC Report No. 2449/1/18; 2018: 1–8.Dippenaar M.A., Brouwers B. Section D. Engineering and geotechnics. In: Dippenaar M.A., Olivier J., Lorentz S., Ubomba-Jaswa E., Abia A.L.K., Diamond R.E., eds. Environmental Risk Assessment, Monitoring and Management of Cemeteries. Report to the Water Research Commission. WRC Report No. 2449/1/18; 2018: 29–34.Dippenaar M.A., Brouwers B. Section D. Engineering and geotechnics. In: Dippenaar M.A., Olivier J., Lorentz S., Ubomba-Jaswa E., Abia A.L.K., Diamond R.E., eds. Environmental Risk Assessment, Monitoring and Management of Cemeteries. Report to the Water Research Commission. WRC Report No. 2449/1/18; 2018: 29–34.Ford T.E. Microbiological safety of drinking water: United States and global perspectives. Environ. Health Perspect. 1999; 107(Suppl. 1): 191–206. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.99107s1191Ford T.E. Microbiological safety of drinking water: United States and global perspectives. Environ. Health Perspect. 1999; 107(Suppl. 1): 191–206. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.99107s1191Całkosiński I., Płoneczka-Janeczko K., Ostapska M., Dudek K., Gamian A., Rypuła K. Microbiological analysis of necrosols collected from urban cemeteries in Poland. Biomed. Res. Int. 2015; 2015: 169573. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/169573Całkosiński I., Płoneczka-Janeczko K., Ostapska M., Dudek K., Gamian A., Rypuła K. Microbiological analysis of necrosols collected from urban cemeteries in Poland. Biomed. Res. Int. 2015; 2015: 169573. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/169573Charzyński P., Bednarek R., Świtoniak M., Żołnowska B. Ekranic technosols and urbic technosols of Toruń necropolis. Geologija. 2011; 53(4): 179–85.Charzyński P., Bednarek R., Świtoniak M., Żołnowska B. Ekranic technosols and urbic technosols of Toruń necropolis. Geologija. 2011; 53(4): 179–85.IUSS WG WRB. World Reference Base for Soil Resources. In: International Soil Classification System for Naming Soils and Creating Legends for Soil Maps. Vienna: International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS); 2022.IUSS WG WRB. World Reference Base for Soil Resources. In: International Soil Classification System for Naming Soils and Creating Legends for Soil Maps. Vienna: International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS); 2022.Smolik F. Pedology. Praha: Statni nakladetelstvi technicke literatury; 1957.Smolik F. Pedology. Praha: Statni nakladetelstvi technicke literatury; 1957.Svec F., Hlina J. Hygiene of Urban Communities. Praha: SNTL; 1978.Svec F., Hlina J. Hygiene of Urban Communities. Praha: SNTL; 1978.Graf A. Flora und vegetation der Friedhöfe in Berlin (West). Verh. Berl. Bot. Ver. 1986; 5: 1–210.Graf A. Flora und vegetation der Friedhöfe in Berlin (West). Verh. Berl. Bot. Ver. 1986; 5: 1–210.Burghardt W. Soils in urban and industrial environments. Z. Pflanzenernähr. Bodenkd. 1994; 157(3): 205–14.Burghardt W. Soils in urban and industrial environments. Z. Pflanzenernähr. Bodenkd. 1994; 157(3): 205–14.Sobocka J. Urban soils vs. anthropogenic soils, their characterisctics and functions. Phytopedon. 2003; 2: 76–80.Sobocka J. Urban soils vs. anthropogenic soils, their characterisctics and functions. Phytopedon. 2003; 2: 76–80.Sobocká J. Necrosol as a new anthropogenic soil type. Soil Anthropization VII. Bratislava; 2004: 107–12.Sobocká J. Necrosol as a new anthropogenic soil type. Soil Anthropization VII. Bratislava; 2004: 107–12.Stroganova M., Myagkova A., Prokofieva T., Skvortsova I. Soils of Moscow and Urban Environment. Moscow: Lomonosov Moscow State University; 1998. https://elibrary.ru/tnalxnStroganova M., Myagkova A., Prokofieva T., Skvortsova I. Soils of Moscow and Urban Environment. Moscow: Lomonosov Moscow State University; 1998. https://elibrary.ru/tnalxnGerasimova M.I., Stroganova M., Mozharova N., Prokofieva T. Anthropogenic soils. Smolensk: Oecumene; 2003.Gerasimova M.I., Stroganova M., Mozharova N., Prokofieva T. Anthropogenic soils. Smolensk: Oecumene; 2003.Прокофьева Т.В., Мартыненко И.А., Иванников Ф.А. Систематика почв и почвообразующих пород Москвы и возможность их включения в общую классификацию. Почвоведение. 2011; (5): 561–71. https://elibrary.ru/ntophlProkofyeva T.V., Martynenko I.A., Ivannikov F.A. Classification of Moscow soils and parent materials and its possible inclusion in the classification system of Russian soils. Eurasian Soil Sci. 2011; 44(5): 561–71. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1064229311050127 https://elibrary.ru/ohqlcjValk H., Malve M., Juus T., Liblik M.A., Jonuks T. Kodavere medieval cemetery – a parish churchyard? Arheol. Välitööd Eestis. 2018: 119–38.Valk H., Malve M., Juus T., Liblik M.A., Jonuks T. Kodavere medieval cemetery – a parish churchyard? Arheol. Välitööd Eestis. 2018: 119–38.Morillas H., Marcaida I., Maguregui M., Upasen S., Gallego-Cartagena E., Madariaga J.M. Identification of metals and metalloids as hazardous elements in PM2.5 and PM10 collected in a coastal environment affected by diffuse contamination. J. Clean. Prod. 2019; 226: 369–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.063Morillas H., Marcaida I., Maguregui M., Upasen S., Gallego-Cartagena E., Madariaga J.M. Identification of metals and metalloids as hazardous elements in PM2.5 and PM10 collected in a coastal environment affected by diffuse contamination. J. Clean. Prod. 2019; 226: 369–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.063Kortei N.K., Heymann M.E., Essuman E.K., Kpodo F.M., Akonor P.T., Lokpo S.Y., et al. Health risk assessment and levels of toxic metals in fishes (Oreochromis noliticus and Clarias anguillaris) from Ankobrah and Pra basins: Impact of illegal mining activities on food safety. Toxicol. Rep. 2020; 7: 360–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2020.02.011Kortei N.K., Heymann M.E., Essuman E.K., Kpodo F.M., Akonor P.T., Lokpo S.Y., et al. Health risk assessment and levels of toxic metals in fishes (Oreochromis noliticus and Clarias anguillaris) from Ankobrah and Pra basins: Impact of illegal mining activities on food safety. Toxicol. Rep. 2020; 7: 360–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2020.02.011Fu S.C., Liu J.M., Lee K.I., Tang F.C., Fang K.M., Yang C.Y., et al. Cr(VI) induces ROS-mediated mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis in neuronal cells via the activation of Akt/ERK/AMPK signaling pathway. Toxicol. In Vitro. 2020; 65: 104795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tiv.2020.104795Fu S.C., Liu J.M., Lee K.I., Tang F.C., Fang K.M., Yang C.Y., et al. Cr(VI) induces ROS-mediated mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis in neuronal cells via the activation of Akt/ERK/AMPK signaling pathway. Toxicol. In Vitro. 2020; 65: 104795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tiv.2020.104795Li J., Song Y., Vogt R.D., Liu Y., Luo J., Li T. Bioavailability and cytotoxicity of Cerium-(IV), Copper-(II), and Zinc oxide nanoparticles to human intestinal and liver cells through food. Sci. Total Environ. 2020; 702: 134700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134700Li J., Song Y., Vogt R.D., Liu Y., Luo J., Li T. Bioavailability and cytotoxicity of Cerium-(IV), Copper-(II), and Zinc oxide nanoparticles to human intestinal and liver cells through food. Sci. Total Environ. 2020; 702: 134700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134700Ucisik A.S., Rushbrook P. The impact of cemetaries on the environment and public health: an introductory briefing. Copenhagen; 1998.Ucisik A.S., Rushbrook P. The impact of cemetaries on the environment and public health: an introductory briefing. Copenhagen; 1998.Fiedler S., Dame T., Graw M. Do cemeteries emit drugs? A case study from southern Germany. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2018; 25: 5393–400.Fiedler S., Dame T., Graw M. Do cemeteries emit drugs? A case study from southern Germany. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2018; 25: 5393–400.Fatta-Kassinos D., Hapeshi E., Achilleos A., Meric S., Gros M., Petrovic M., et al. Existence of pharmaceutical compounds in Tertiary treated urban wastewater that is utilized for reuse applications. Water Resour. Manag. 2011; 25: 1183–93.Fatta-Kassinos D., Hapeshi E., Achilleos A., Meric S., Gros M., Petrovic M., et al. Existence of pharmaceutical compounds in Tertiary treated urban wastewater that is utilized for reuse applications. Water Resour. Manag. 2011; 25: 1183–93.Kleywegt S., Payne M., Raby M., Filippi D., Ng C.F., Fletcher T. The final discharge: Quantifying contaminants in embalming process effluents discharged to sewers in Ontario, Canada. Environ. Pollut. 2019; 252(Pt. B): 1476–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.06.036Kleywegt S., Payne M., Raby M., Filippi D., Ng C.F., Fletcher T. The final discharge: Quantifying contaminants in embalming process effluents discharged to sewers in Ontario, Canada. Environ. Pollut. 2019; 252(Pt. B): 1476–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.06.036Briffa J., Sinagra E., Blundell R. Heavy metal pollution in the environment and their toxicological effects on humans. Heliyon. 2020; 6(9): e04691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04691Briffa J., Sinagra E., Blundell R. Heavy metal pollution in the environment and their toxicological effects on humans. Heliyon. 2020; 6(9): e04691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04691Mordhorst A., Zimmermann I., Fleige H., Horn R. Environmental risk of (heavy) metal release from urns into cemetery soils. Sci. Total. Environ. 2022; 817: 152952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.152952Mordhorst A., Zimmermann I., Fleige H., Horn R. Environmental risk of (heavy) metal release from urns into cemetery soils. Sci. Total. Environ. 2022; 817: 152952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.152952Chiappelli J., Chiappelli T. Drinking grandma: the problem of embalming. J. Environ. Health. 2008; 71(5): 24–8.Chiappelli J., Chiappelli T. Drinking grandma: the problem of embalming. J. Environ. Health. 2008; 71(5): 24–8.Valk H., Malve M., Juus T., Liblik M.A., Jonuks T. Kodavere medieval cemetery – a parish churchyard? Arheoloogilised Välitööd Eestis. 2018; 119–38.Valk H., Malve M., Juus T., Liblik M.A., Jonuks T. Kodavere medieval cemetery – a parish churchyard? Arheoloogilised Välitööd Eestis. 2018; 119–38.Majgier L., Rahmonov O. Necrosols of cemeteries in Masurian Lakeland. In: Charzyński P., Hulisz P., Bednarek R., eds. Technogenic Soils of Poland. Toruń: Polish Society of Soil Science; 2013: 95–109.Majgier L., Rahmonov O. Necrosols of cemeteries in Masurian Lakeland. In: Charzyński P., Hulisz P., Bednarek R., eds. Technogenic Soils of Poland. Toruń: Polish Society of Soil Science; 2013: 95–109.Ушакова О.В., Рахманин Ю.А., Евсеева И.С. Риск развития у работников кладбищ болезней, связанных с загрязнением почвы. Гигиена и санитария. 2024; 103(10): 1155–9. https://doi.org/10.47470/0016-9900-2024-103-10-1155-1159 https://elibrary.ru/ogufniUshakova O.V., Rakhmanin Yu.A., Evseeva I.S. Risk factors for the occurring diseases associated with soil contamination among cemetery workers. Gigiena i Sanitaria (Hygiene and Sanitation, Russian journal). 2024; 103(10): 1155–9. https://doi.org/10.47470/0016-9900-2024-103-10-1155-1159 https://elibrary.ru/ogufni (in Russian)Wescott D.J. Recent advances in forensic anthropology: decomposition research. Forensic Sci. Res. 2018; 3(4): 327–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/20961790.2018.1488571Wescott D.J. Recent advances in forensic anthropology: decomposition research. Forensic Sci. Res. 2018; 3(4): 327–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/20961790.2018.1488571Taylor L.S., Gonzalez A., Essington M.E., Lenaghan S.C., Stewart C.N., Mundorff A.Z., et al. Soil elemental changes during human decomposition. PLoS One. 2023; 18(6): e0287094. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287094Taylor L.S., Gonzalez A., Essington M.E., Lenaghan S.C., Stewart C.N., Mundorff A.Z., et al. Soil elemental changes during human decomposition. PLoS One. 2023; 18(6): e0287094. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287094Власов А.Ю. Трупные явления («Жизнь трупа»): часть II. Известия высших учебных заведений. Уральский регион. 2018; (3): 128–49. https://elibrary.ru/yujdchVlasov A.Yu. Cadaveric phenomena (“life of a corpse”): part II. Izvestiya vysshikh uchebnykh zavedenii. Ural’skii region. 2018; (3): 128–49. https://elibrary.ru/yujdch (in Russian)Tumer A.R., Karacaoglu E., Namli A., Keten A., Farasat S., Akcan R., et al. Effects of different types of soil on decomposition: an experimental study. Leg. Med. (Tokyo). 2013; 15(3): 149–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.legalmed.2012.11.003Tumer A.R., Karacaoglu E., Namli A., Keten A., Farasat S., Akcan R., et al. Effects of different types of soil on decomposition: an experimental study. Leg. Med. (Tokyo). 2013; 15(3): 149–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.legalmed.2012.11.003Franco D.S., Georgin J., Villarreal Campo L.A., Mayoral M.A., Goenaga J.O., Fruto C.M., et al. The environmental pollution caused by cemeteries and cremations: A review. Chemosphere. 2022; 307(Pt. 4): 136025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136025Franco D.S., Georgin J., Villarreal Campo L.A., Mayoral M.A., Goenaga J.O., Fruto C.M., et al. The environmental pollution caused by cemeteries and cremations: A review. Chemosphere. 2022; 307(Pt. 4): 136025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136025Pawlett M., Rickson R.J., Niziolomski J., Churchill S., Kešner M. Human cadaver burial depth affects soil microbial and nutrient status. Archaeol. Environ. Forensic Sci. 2019; 1(2): 119–25. https://doi.org/10.1558/aefs.33662Pawlett M., Rickson R.J., Niziolomski J., Churchill S., Kešner M. Human cadaver burial depth affects soil microbial and nutrient status. Archaeol. Environ. Forensic Sci. 2019; 1(2): 119–25. https://doi.org/10.1558/aefs.33662Lutze A. Back in the cycle: A review of the taphonomy of biomineralised tissues: Diss. Perth; 2022. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.11104.70408Lutze A. Back in the cycle: A review of the taphonomy of biomineralised tissues: Diss. Perth; 2022. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.11104.70408Iancu L., Bonicelli A., Procopio N. Decomposition in an extreme cold environment and associated microbiome-prediction model implications for the postmortem interval estimation. Front. Microbiol. 2024; 15: 1392716. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1392716Iancu L., Bonicelli A., Procopio N. Decomposition in an extreme cold environment and associated microbiome-prediction model implications for the postmortem interval estimation. Front. Microbiol. 2024; 15: 1392716. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1392716Dautartas A., Kenyhercz M.W., Vidoli G.M., Meadows Jantz L., Mundorff A., Steadman D.W. Differential decomposition among pig, rabbit, and human remains. J. Forensic Sci. 2018; 63(6): 1673–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.13784Dautartas A., Kenyhercz M.W., Vidoli G.M., Meadows Jantz L., Mundorff A., Steadman D.W. Differential decomposition among pig, rabbit, and human remains. J. Forensic Sci. 2018; 63(6): 1673–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.13784Connor M., Baigent C., Hansen E.S. Testing the use of pigs as human proxies in decomposition studies. J. Forensic. Sci. 2018; 63(5): 1350–5. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.13727Connor M., Baigent C., Hansen E.S. Testing the use of pigs as human proxies in decomposition studies. J. Forensic. Sci. 2018; 63(5): 1350–5. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.13727Ing T.K., Ismail N.A., Soon L.P. Taphonomic study of adult Susscrofa domestica in equatorial climate in Sarawak, Malaysia. Austin J. Forensic Sci. Criminol. 2017; 4(1): 1058.Ing T.K., Ismail N.A., Soon L.P. Taphonomic study of adult Susscrofa domestica in equatorial climate in Sarawak, Malaysia. Austin J. Forensic Sci. Criminol. 2017; 4(1): 1058.Gunawardena S.A., Abeyratne P., Jayasena A., Rajapaksha S., Senadhipathi H., Siriwardana D., et al. Retrospective analysis of factors affecting rate of skeletonization within a tropical climate. Sci. Justice. 2023; 63(5): 638–50.Gunawardena S.A., Abeyratne P., Jayasena A., Rajapaksha S., Senadhipathi H., Siriwardana D., et al. Retrospective analysis of factors affecting rate of skeletonization within a tropical climate. Sci. Justice. 2023; 63(5): 638–50.Халиков А.А., Кильдюшов Е.М., Кузнецов К.О., Рахматуллина Г.Р. Определение давности наступления смерти с помощью посмертного микробиома: современный взгляд и подходы к решению проблемы. Судебно-медицинская экспертиза. 2022; 65(3): 49–53. https://doi.org/10.17116/sudmed20226503149 https://elibrary.ru/tqgzhKhalikov A.A., Kildyushov E.M., Kuznetsov K.O., Rahmatullina G.R. Estimation of time since death with the postmortem microbiome: a modern view and approaches to solving the problem. Sudebno-meditsinskaya ekspertiza. 2022; 65(3): 49–53. https://doi.org/10.17116/sudmed20226503149 https://elibrary.ru/tqgzhp (in Russian)

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.