Detection of microplastics particles in the aquatic environment by staining

Introduction. Microplastics are among the most common environmental contaminants worldwide, which levels of pollution and harm to health have begun to be assessed only recently. Biological activity of microplastics has been established in "in vivo" and "in vitro": studies: they were found to impair the development and functioning of the digestive, reproductive, central nervous, immune, and circulatory systems, induce tissue and organ dysplasia, be geno-, neuro-, and cytotoxic. The findings necessitate monitoring of microplastics in water by supervisory authorities and business entities. Yet, there is no official method for determining microplastics in the aqueous environment in the Russian Federation.

Our objective was to apply an express method for the qualitative determination of microplastics in surface waters and treated water before supply.

Materials and methods. We analyzed water samples taken from two regional reservoirs and at water treatment plants before supply to the centralized system in two industrial cities of the Sverdlovsk Region by Nile red staining and subsequent identification of microplastics using a phase-contrast fluorescence microscope.

Results. We found microplastics in both surface and treated water samples, and established their shape and size.

Limitations. This method evaluates only qualitative characteristics of microplastics without establishing their chemical composition; the resolution of a microscope determines analytical accuracy.

Conclusions. The applied method has enabled us to find microplastics in surface waters sampled at different depths and in the treated water before supply. Round and rod-shaped particles were observed in both types of water while those in the form of elongated filaments were detected only in surface water samples.

Compliance with ethical standards. This study does not require the conclusion of a biomedical ethics committee or other documents.

Contribution:
Khlystov I.A. — study conception and design, draft manuscript preparation and editing, collection of literature data;
Bushueva T.V. — study conception and design, editing;
Gribova Yu.V., Karpova E.P. — data collection and processing;
Kharkova P.K. — collection of literature data;
Labzova A.K. — data collection and processing, editing;
Bugayeva A.V., Sakhautdinova R.R. — editing;
Gurvich V.B. — study conception and design.
All authors are responsible for the integrity of all parts of the manuscript and approval of the manuscript final version.

Conflict of interest. The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgement. The study had no sponsorship.

Received: August 31, 2023 / Accepted: November 15, 2023 / Published: December 8, 2023

1. Al Harraq A., Bharti B. Microplastics through the lens of colloid science. ACS Environ. Au. 2021; 2(1): 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenvironau.1c00016

2. Donoso J.M., Rios-Touma B. Microplastics in tropical Andean rivers: A perspective from a highly populated Ecuadorian basin without wastewater treatment. Heliyon. 2020; 6(7): e04302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04302

3. Amran N.H., Zaid S.S.M., Mokhtar M.H., Manaf L.A., Othman S. Exposure to microplastics during early developmental stage: Review of current evidence. Toxics. 2022; 10(10): 597. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10100597

4. Zhang Y., Wang D., Yin K., Zhao H., Lu H., Meng X., et al. Endoplasmic reticulum stress-controlled autophagic pathway promotes polystyrene microplastics-induced myocardial dysplasia in birds. Environ. Pollut. 2022; 311: 119963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119963

5. Prüst M., Meijer J., Westerink R.H.S. The plastic brain: neurotoxicity of micro- and nanoplastics. Part. Fibre Toxicol. 2020; 17(1): 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12989-020-00358-y

6. Caputi S., Diomede F., Lanuti P., Marconi G.D., Di Carlo P., Sinjari B., et al. Microplastics affect the inflammation pathway in human gingival fibroblasts: A study in the Adriatic Sea. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2022; 19(13): 7782. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137782

7. Danopoulos E., Twiddy M., West R., Rotchell J.M. A rapid review and meta-regression analyses of the toxicological impacts of microplastic exposure in human cells. J. Hazard. Mater. 2022; 427: 127861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127861

8. Doshi N., Mitragotri S. Needle-shaped polymeric particles induce transient disruption of cell membranes. J. R. Soc. Interface. 2010; 7(Suppl. 4): S403–10. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2010.0134.focus

9. Schymanski D., Oßmann B.E., Benismail N., Boukerma K., Dallmann G., von der Esch E., et al. Analysis of microplastics in drinking water and other clean water samples with micro-Raman and micro-infrared spectroscopy: minimum requirements and best practice guidelines. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2021; 413(24): 5969–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-021-03498-y

10. Tamminga M., Hengstmann E., Fischer E.K. Nile red staining as a subsidiary method for microplastic quantification: A comparison of three solvents and factors influencing application reliability. J. Earth Sci. Environ. Stud. 2017; 2(2). https://doi.org/10.15436/jeses.2.2.1

11. Ivanova E.V., Guzeva A.V., Lapenkov A.E., Pozdnyakov Sh.R., Kapustina L.L., Mitrukova G.G., et al. The aspects of using Nile red for the detection of plastic particles in environment. Rossiyskiy zhurnal prikladnoy ekologii. 2020; (4): 36–42. https://doi.org/10.24411/2411-7374-2020-10032 https://elibrary.ru/csuqud (in Russian)

12. Fiore M., Fraterrigo Garofalo S., Migliavacca A., Mansutti A., Fino D., Tommasi T. Tackling marine microplastics pollution: an overview of existing solutions. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2022; 233(7): 276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-022-05715-5

13. Bäuerlein P.S., Hofman-Caris R.C.H.M., Pieke E.N., Ter Laak T.L. Fate of microplastics in the drinking water production. Water Res. 2022; 221: 118790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2022.118790

14. Li Y., Sun Y., Li J., Tang R., Miu Y., Ma X. Research on the influence of microplastics on marine life. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2021; 631: 012006. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/631/1/012006

15. Amaral-Zettler L.A., Zettler E.R., Mincer T.J., Klaassen M.A., Gallager S.M. Biofouling impacts on polyethylene density and sinking in coastal waters: A macro/micro tipping point? Water Res. 2021; 201: 117289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117289

16. Vagnetti R., Miana P., Fabris M., Pavoni B. Self-purification ability of a resurgence stream. Chemosphere. 2003; 52(10): 1781–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(03)00445-4

17. D’Avignon G., Gregory-Eaves I., Ricciardi A. Microplastics in lakes and rivers: an issue of emerging significance to limnology. Environ. Rev. 2022; 30(2): 228–44. https://doi.org/10.1139/er-2021-0048

18. Tang N., Yu Y., Cai L., Tan X., Zhang L., Huang Y., et al. Distribution characteristics and source analysis of microplastics in urban freshwater lakes: A case study in Songshan Lake of Dongguan, China. Water. 2022; 14(7): 1111. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14071111

19. Singh S., Trushna T., Kalyanasundaram M., Tamhankar A.J., Diwan V. Microplastics in drinking water: a macro issue. Water Supply. 2022; 22(5): 5650–74. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2022.189

20. Floros I.N., Kouvelos E.P., Pilatos G.I., Hadjigeorgiou E.P., Gotzias A.D., Favvas E.P., et al. Enhancement of flux performance in PTFE membranes for direct contact membrane distillation. Polymers (Basel). 2020; 12(2): 345. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12020345